The change of variables formula:
$p_X(x) = p_Z(z) \big|\det\frac{\partial x}{\partial z}\big|^{-1}$
$p_Z(z) = p_X(x) \big|\det\frac{\partial x}{\partial z}\big|$
Example:
Let $p(x) = 2x, 0 \leq x \leq 1$, and $z = f(x) = \sqrt{x}$
$\sqrt{x} = z \Leftrightarrow x = z^2$
$\frac{\partial x}{\partial z} = 2z$
$p_X(\textbf{x}) = p_Z(z) \bigg| \det \bigg( \frac{\partial \textbf{x}}{\partial z}\bigg) \bigg|^{-1} $
$p_Z(z) = p_X(\textbf{x}) \bigg| \det \bigg( \frac{\partial \textbf{x}}{\partial z}\bigg) \bigg| $
$p_Z(z) = (2x)| 2z |$
$p_Z(z) = (2(z^2))2z$
$p_Z(z) = 4z^3$
Let's try to visualize this!
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
%matplotlib inline
from matplotlib.ticker import NullFormatter
We are going to plot 3 graphs: $p(x)$, $p(z)$, and $z = f(x) = \sqrt{x}$
nullfmt = NullFormatter() # no labels
plt.figure(1, figsize=(6, 6))
# definitions for the axes
left, width = 0.1, 0.65
bottom, height = 0.1, 0.65
bottom_h = left_h = left + width + 0.02
rect_scatter = [left, bottom, width, height]
rect_histx = [left, bottom_h, width, 0.2]
rect_histy = [left_h, bottom, 0.4, height]
axFunc = plt.axes(rect_scatter)
axPX = plt.axes(rect_histx)
axPZ = plt.axes(rect_histy)
# no labels
axPX.xaxis.set_major_formatter(nullfmt)
axPZ.yaxis.set_major_formatter(nullfmt)
# Title the axes
axPX.set_title(r"$p(x) = 2x$", fontsize=16)
axPX.set_ylabel(r"$p(x) = 2x$", fontsize=16)
axPZ.set_xlabel(r"$p(z) = 4z^3$", fontsize=16)
axFunc.set_xlabel(r"$x$", fontsize=16)
axFunc.set_ylabel(r"$z = \sqrt{x}$", fontsize=16)
# Plot function
x = np.linspace(0, 1, 50)
z = np.linspace(0, 1, 50)
axFunc.plot(x, np.sqrt(x))
axPX.plot(x, 2*x)
axPZ.plot(4*z**3, z)
# Plot a fill area
x_fill = np.linspace(0.45, 0.55, 3)
z_fill = np.sqrt(x_fill)
axPX.fill_between(x_fill, 2*x_fill, color='blue',linestyle='--')
axPZ.fill_betweenx(z_fill,4*z_fill**3, color='green',linestyle='--')
axFunc.fill_between(x_fill, z_fill, 1, color='blue', linestyle='--')
axFunc.fill_betweenx(z_fill, x_fill, 1, color='green', linestyle='--')
plt.show()
The blue area in the $p(x)$ graph above has the same area as the green area in the $p(z)$ graph on the right.
As seen in lecture, we can use REINFORCE as an alternative way to train a classifier. Instead of using cross-entropy and gradient descent, we can directly try to optimize the classification accuracy using REINFORCE. The set up looks like this (as shown in lec 21):
The difference between using REINFORCE versus Cross Entropy loss is that we need to sample the digit class, given the distribution over categories for a given image (state) at time $i$:
$\tilde{a_i} \sim \pi(a | x_i)$
And then apply the REINFORCE gradient estimator:
$ gradient = r(\tilde{a_i}, t_i) \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta} \log \pi_\theta (a_i | x_i)$
$ \theta \leftarrow \theta + \alpha * gradient$
import autograd.numpy as np
import autograd.numpy.random as npr
from autograd.scipy.special import expit
from autograd import grad
from autograd.misc.optimizers import adam
from autograd import elementwise_grad
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
%matplotlib inline
# Generate some toy data
from sklearn.datasets import load_iris
iris = load_iris()
# print iris['DESCR']
color_wheel = {1: "#0392cf",
2: "#7bc043",
3: "#ee4035"}
sepal_len = iris['data'][:100,0]
sepal_wid = iris['data'][:100,1]
labels = iris['target'][:100]
# We will also center the data
# This is done to make numbers nice, so that we have no
# need for biases in our classification. (You might not
# be able to remove biases this way in general.)
sepal_len -= np.mean(sepal_len)
sepal_wid -= np.mean(sepal_wid)
We can plot the subset of data that we've chosen:
plt.scatter(sepal_len,
sepal_wid,
c=labels,
cmap=plt.cm.Paired)
plt.xlabel("sepal length")
plt.ylabel("sepal width")
Text(0,0.5,'sepal width')
def plot_sep(w1, w2, color='green'):
'''
Plot decision boundary hypothesis
w1 * sepal_len + w2 * sepal_wid = 0
in input space, highlighting the hyperplane
'''
plt.scatter(sepal_len,
sepal_wid,
c=labels,
cmap=plt.cm.Paired)
plt.title("Separation in Input Space")
plt.ylim([-1.5,1.5])
plt.xlim([-1.5,2])
plt.xlabel("sepal length")
plt.ylabel("sepal width")
if w2 != 0:
m = -w1/w2
t = 1 if w2 > 0 else -1
plt.plot(
[-1.5,2.0],
[-1.5*m, 2.0*m],
'-y',
color=color)
plt.fill_between(
[-1.5, 2.0],
[m*-1.5, m*2.0],
[t*1.5, t*1.5],
alpha=0.2,
color=color)
if w2 == 0: # decision boundary is vertical
t = 1 if w1 > 0 else -1
plt.plot([0, 0],
[-1.5, 2.0],
'-y',
color=color)
plt.fill_between(
[0, 2.0*t],
[-1.5, -2.0],
[1.5, 2],
alpha=0.2,
color=color)
# A simple logistic classifier model
data = [(x,y) for x, y in zip(sepal_len, sepal_wid)]
def get_batch(data, labels, batch_size):
choices = np.random.choice(len(data), batch_size, replace=False)
return np.array(data)[choices], np.array(labels)[choices]
get_batch(data,labels, 10)
(array([[-0.571, -0.094], [ 0.229, -0.294], [-0.071, 0.306], [-0.071, 0.806], [ 0.329, -0.394], [ 0.929, 0.106], [ 0.529, -0.194], [-0.071, 0.806], [ 0.629, -0.294], [-0.471, 0.306]]), array([0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0]))
# Get a subset of the data and plot
data_batch, label_batch = get_batch(data,labels, 10)
plt.scatter(data_batch[:,0],
data_batch[:,1],
c=label_batch,
cmap=plt.cm.Paired)
plt.xlabel("sepal length")
plt.ylabel("sepal width")
Text(0,0.5,'sepal width')
# Version 1: Using binary cross-entropy and SGD
# Reference: https://github.com/HIPS/autograd/blob/master/docs/tutorial.md
def sigmoid(x):
return 0.5 * (np.tanh(x / 2.) + 1)
def logistic_predictions(weights, inputs):
# Outputs probability of a label being true according to logistic model.
return sigmoid(np.dot(inputs, weights))
def bce_training_loss(weights, inputs, targets):
# Training loss is the negative log-likelihood of the training labels.
preds = logistic_predictions(weights, inputs)
label_probabilities = preds * targets + (1 - preds) * (1 - targets)
return -np.mean(np.log(label_probabilities))
# Define a function that returns gradients of training loss using Autograd.
training_gradient_fun = grad(bce_training_loss)
lr = 0.01
weights = np.array([0.0, 0.0])
batch_size = 1
data_batch, label_batch = get_batch(data, labels, batch_size)
ce_loss_list = []
iterations = []
num_it = 100
print("Initial loss:", bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
ce_loss_list.append(bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
iterations.append(0)
for i in range(num_it):
data_batch, label_batch = get_batch(data, labels, batch_size)
weights -= training_gradient_fun(weights, data_batch, label_batch) * lr
if i % 10 == 0:
print "Weights: {}, ce loss: {}".format(weights, bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
plt.figure()
plot_sep(weights[0], weights[1], color='green')
plt.title("Iteration {}".format(i))
ce_loss_list.append(bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
iterations.append(i+1)
print("Trained loss:", bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
print weights
('Initial loss:', 0.6931471805599453) Weights: [ 0.000855 -0.00303 ], ce loss: 0.692156479291 Weights: [ 0.0340743 -0.00763141], ce loss: 0.679698736715 Weights: [ 0.0485318 -0.03333809], ce loss: 0.680038089181 Weights: [ 0.06976188 -0.04276592], ce loss: 0.667399038146 Weights: [ 0.09125719 -0.05633454], ce loss: 0.676695833047 Weights: [ 0.10582036 -0.07824413], ce loss: 0.647013186527 Weights: [ 0.13920815 -0.08978831], ce loss: 0.613768389594 Weights: [ 0.17614595 -0.09266677], ce loss: 0.663968924237 Weights: [ 0.19693307 -0.10913744], ce loss: 0.579831248138 Weights: [ 0.2213553 -0.12501762], ce loss: 0.624426936135 ('Trained loss:', 0.6455490342752355) [ 0.24780465 -0.1302439 ]
# Version 2: REINFORCE version of the training using classification accuracy
def logit(x):
"""Inverse of sigmoid: log(x / (1- x))
"""
return np.log(x) - np.log(1-x)
# Fast Sigmoid: https://timvieira.github.io/blog/post/2016/07/04/fast-sigmoid-sampling/
def sample_sigmoid(x, noise):
""" Assume x is batch_size * 1.
Return batch_size * 1 sample where the probability of ith row = 1 is given by x[i]
Does u ~ uniform(0,1), out = x > logit(u)
"""
z = logit(noise)
return np.array(x > z, dtype=np.int64)
def log_sigmoid_predictions(weights, inputs, noise):
prob = sigmoid(np.dot(inputs, weights))
prediction = sample_sigmoid(prob, noise)
return np.log(prediction*prob + (1-prediction)*(1-prob))
def funcval_log_sigmoid_predictions(weights, inputs, noise, func_val):
log_sig_pred = log_sigmoid_predictions(weights, inputs, noise)
return func_val * log_sig_pred
def classification_acc(weight, inputs, targets, noise):
prob = sigmoid(np.dot(inputs, weights))
prediction = sample_sigmoid(prob, noise)
return np.array(prediction == targets, dtype=np.int64)
# Derivative of a sigmoid wrt input z: https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/2320905/obtaining-derivative-of-log-of-sigmoid-function
def grad_log_sigmoid_predictions(weights, inputs, noise):
z = np.dot(inputs, weights)
prob = sigmoid(z)
prediction = sample_sigmoid(prob, noise)
d_log_sigmoid_pred_dz = ((prediction)*(np.exp(-np.maximum(z,0))/(np.exp(z-np.maximum(z,0)) + np.exp(-np.maximum(z,0)))) + (1-prediction)*(np.exp(z-np.maximum(z,0))/(np.exp(z-np.maximum(z,0)) + np.exp(-np.maximum(z,0)))))
return np.sum(np.expand_dims(d_log_sigmoid_pred_dz, axis=1)*(inputs), axis=0)
def REINFORCE(weight, inputs, targets, noise):
prob = sigmoid(np.dot(inputs, weights))
samples = sample_sigmoid(prob, noise)
func_vals = classification_acc(weight, inputs, targets, noise)
reinforce_grad = elementwise_grad(funcval_log_sigmoid_predictions)(weights, inputs, noise, func_vals)/inputs.shape[0]
# Alternative: Pure python without using autograd. Implement own
# reinforce_grad = np.expand_dims(func_vals, axis=1) * grad_log_sigmoid_predictions(weights, inputs, noise)
return reinforce_grad
lr = 0.01
weights = np.array([0.0, 0.0])
batch_size = 1
data_batch, label_batch = get_batch(data, labels, batch_size)
out = logistic_predictions(weights, data_batch)
data_batch, label_batch = get_batch(data, labels, batch_size)
noise_u = np.random.uniform(0,1,size=label_batch.shape)
print("Initial Classification Error:", np.mean(classification_acc(weights, data_batch, label_batch, noise_u)))
print "weights: {}, classification error: {}, ce loss: {}".format(weights, np.mean(classification_acc(weights, data_batch, label_batch, noise_u)),bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
rl_ce_loss_list = []
rl_ce_loss_list.append(bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
plt.figure()
plot_sep(weights[0], weights[1], color='green')
plt.title("Iteration {}".format(i))
for i in range(num_it):
data_batch, label_batch = get_batch(data, labels, batch_size)
noise_u = np.random.uniform(0,1,size=label_batch.shape)
reinforce_grad = REINFORCE(weights, data_batch, label_batch, noise_u)
weights += reinforce_grad*lr
if i % 10 == 0:
print "weights: {}, classification error: {}, ce loss: {}".format(weights, np.mean(classification_acc(weights, data_batch, label_batch, noise_u)),bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
plt.figure()
plot_sep(weights[0], weights[1], color='green')
plt.title("Iteration {}".format(i))
rl_ce_loss_list.append(bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
print("Trained loss:", bce_training_loss(weights, data_batch, label_batch))
print weights
('Initial Classification Error:', 0.0) weights: [0. 0.], classification error: 0.0, ce loss: 0.69314718056 weights: [ 0.001855 -0.00353 ], classification error: 1.0, ce loss: 0.691558252416 weights: [ 0.01603292 -0.00458606], classification error: 1.0, ce loss: 0.68961440351 weights: [ 0.03127543 -0.00810425], classification error: 0.0, ce loss: 0.675377067057 weights: [ 0.03609742 -0.01699525], classification error: 1.0, ce loss: 0.694691507808 weights: [ 0.05418392 -0.02096945], classification error: 1.0, ce loss: 0.678941620984 weights: [ 0.07526975 -0.03448783], classification error: 1.0, ce loss: 0.658446065952 weights: [ 0.08874398 -0.04083816], classification error: 0.0, ce loss: 0.657773983599 weights: [ 0.10481852 -0.04417893], classification error: 0.0, ce loss: 0.657382778382 weights: [ 0.12030549 -0.05194805], classification error: 1.0, ce loss: 0.668258907264 weights: [ 0.1272702 -0.05146521], classification error: 0.0, ce loss: 0.631848960901 ('Trained loss:', 0.6514203975150817) [ 0.13503538 -0.05337224]
# Plot CE with SGD vs REINFORCE
plt.figure()
plt.plot(iterations, ce_loss_list, label="SGD XEntropy")
plt.plot(iterations, rl_ce_loss_list, label="REINFORCE")
plt.ylabel("XEntropy")
plt.xlabel("Iterations")
plt.title("Cross Entropy over Iterations")
plt.legend()
<matplotlib.legend.Legend at 0x1a09a99a90>
Exercise: Try with baseline: modify classification_acc
to have baseline: reward = [pred == target] + 10